设计英文文献

电子版发到你邮箱了Chris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath1The Design of Everyday ThingsBy Donald A. NormanThe general foundation of this book is that many objects or devices aren’t designedproperly. Many reasons exist why designs don’t work. I wish to focus on the human learningaspect of design, and how human thought affects the design of any object. In “The Design ofEveryday Things” Donald Norman spends a great deal of time discussing the different designof everyday items. Norman doesn’t just talk about drawing and design; he also goes intogreat detail of human learning and how it affects design. Many aspects of human thought andlearning affect the design of objects. Many items are not designed properly, in many cases,because the designer doesn’t take into account learning theories. Theories of learning affectthe way a person uses any particular device and it should affect the design of the item.Norman uses many examples of items that are not designed properly; I hope to concentrate onsome learning theories that should affect design.In chapter three the author jumps into the subject of memory. Memory plays a bigrole in how individuals know how to use or learn how to use a particular object. For an objectto be effective the user must have some prior knowledge of how or what the object does orhow to use the object. “People function through their use of two kinds of knowledge:knowledge of and knowledge how.” (p 57) Knowledge of is the memorization of facts. Anexample would be the memorization of information for a test. Many different things haveknowledge of in their design. In contrast, Knowledge how is a completely different type. Alsocalled procedural knowledge, it is the knowledge of what it takes to perform a task.Procedural knowledge can’t always be known or learned like a fact can be. The best formatfor learning procedural knowledge is by watching, learning, and practicing. These two typesChris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath2of knowledge affect the design of objects significantly. Many items are designed with thenotion that the user will have knowledge on how to use the object. An example, closelyrelated to the one examined in the book, is that if an individual doesn’t know that the clutchneeds to be pushed in to start a car, the individual probably won’t get the car started.Designers sometimes don’t take into account that knowledge of is not there and the use of anobject might be negatively affected because of this. Knowledge how can also determine thedesign of an object. How an individual knows how to use an object needs carefulconsideration in design. Using these two definitions of knowledge may explain a theory oflearning.A person must have memory to use an object, for example, you must have memory touse a telephone. The two types of memory are defined as Long-term memory (LTM) andShort-term memory (STM). Short-term memory is usually capable of memorizing 5-7 items,but if a distraction is present the information is lost. Long-term memory is not a memorynecessarily of details, but of circumstances or life experiences. The good thing about LTM isthat it is very large, even too large to realistically measure. The bad thing about LTM isorganizing and retrieving information. Norman categorizes memory into 3 types: Memoryfor arbitrary things; Memory for meaningful relationships; and memory through explanation.The first, “memory for arbitrary things” is the memory of things without knowing whyor how they really work. The problem of this type of ‘rote’ learning is that the learner has nounderstanding of what is really happening; the learner just knows the information. “It is stillthe dominant method of instruction in many school systems, and even for much adult training.This is how some people are taught to use computers, or to cook.” (p. 68)Chris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath3“Memory for meaningful relationships” is the a little bit sounder form of memory, butit is not discussed in depth by the author. This type of memory goes a little bit farther bygiving some explanation to information. When you connect the information into anotherpiece of information to make it make sense, the information will be retained a little better.The final and most effective type of LTM is “memory through explanation”. This type ofmemory involves the ultimate understanding of how or why something works. “Explanationand interpretations of events are fundamental to human performance, both in understandingthe world and in learning and remembering.” The author’s background of design is shown inthis section by his description of making mental models to really understand how somethingworks. Mental models are thoughts in memory of how things work and how they are puttogether. “The power of mental models is that they let you figure out what would happen innovel situations” but they also help you figure out a problem if something goes wrong. Inmany instances an individual will make up a mental model and most the times the model isincorrect. The author describes a sewing machine and feels that if a person really has a goodmental model of how one works, then, and only then, does the person have a trueunderstanding of how it works and an understanding of when something doesn’t workproperly. According to the author, memory through explanation by using and making mentalmodels is the “more powerful form of internal memory”.In chapter 5, Norman delves into another important concept that deals with humanmemory and cognition. Connectivism is the science of mapping the brain as billions of cellsall connected and working together. All tasks or decisions can be diagramed together as astructure. Some tasks have wide and deep structures, some tasks are shallow, and some arenarrow. The task of playing chess is an example of a wide and deep structure. For example,Chris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath4if every move contains eight possibilities, with each and every one of those moves theopponent has eight possibilities. Just in a matter of a few moves the amount of choices of thetask is huge. The author’s example of a shallow structure is the task of buying ice cream in anice cream store. Not much preparation is needed and the thought process is quite simple.Lastly, narrow structured tasks are those that have very few possibilities or responses to eachdecision. Narrow structures may have many decisions but do not have many choices in thedecisions. The author’s example of this type of task is starting a car, there might be tendifferent steps or decisions, a few can be done in different order but the structure of decisionsis basically the same.The final idea that I will discuss is found in Chapter 6, which is entitled “How to dothings Wrong”. Norman goes into some detail of the early design of computers and what waswrong with them; keep in mind this book was written in 1988. Even though this book isdated, the ideas of computing design are still valid today. “If you want to make somethingdifficult to use, you could probably do no better than to copy the designers of moderncomputer systems” (p. 179). A short list of what was wrong with the design of computersincludes: making things invisible; being arbitrary; being inconsistent; making operationsunintelligible; and making operations dangerous. Making things invisible was one of thebiggest problems with computers. Early computers just had a blank screen with no feedbackor response when the computer was doing something right or wrong. Computers were alsoarbitrary by using “unobvious command names and actions.” And lastly, computer operationswere very risky; one wrong action could cause a system failure. Many other problems existwith the language of computers “Most programmers fluently write computer programs thatdo wonderful things but that are unusable by the non-professional. Most programmers haveChris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath5never thought of the problems faced by the users.” (p. 180). Many early programs were verygood, especially spreadsheets, these showed users direct results, all the commands dosomething that can be easily seen, the user forgets he/she is using a computer. Anotherinteresting point brought up by Norman is good computing requires good interaction with theuser with good visual display and speed.It may not be immediately clear that the everyday users of computer systems are theones who require the most powerful systems, with the most memory and the bestdisplay. Professional programmers can get by with less, for they know how to dealwith more complex interactions and less effective displays. (p. 81)The first computers were designed with programmers in mind. The first sign of a userfriendlycomputer was Apple’s Macintosh computer. The Macintosh makes use of agraphical, interface screen and eliminates the blank screen where no menus are present.Computers need to be explorable devices where the user can be able to play without worryingabout breaking something.The way the user interacts with the computer is very important when thinking abouthow easy the computer is to use. One way to interact with the computer is in the first person.This is the way that video games are designed, and that is why they are so popular. In thisform of communication, also known as “direct manipulation mode” or “first-person mode”,the computer does whatever the user tells it to. The other form of interaction is “third person”or “command mode” where the user tells the computer to work on it’s own. The commandmode is for more repetitive actions or very difficult procedures and commands. “First personmode” is very easy for the user to operate because the results are seen and understood rightaway. This type of mode makes the computer invisible because it makes the user feel likehe/she is doing a job rather than using a computer. Norman feels that computers of the futureChris Holborn Proseminar B: Unit 3 Dr. Mcgrath6will be invisible; today I can see that he had good vision. Even people who claim that theydon’t use or like computers use them everyday. The only difference is that the computers arenow invisible in many cases; the more a person feels that he/she is not using a computer themore effective the computer will be.In conclusion, I feel that without directly mentioning a specific learning theoryNorman hits on some aspects of several different theories. The schema learning theory is onethat Norman backs. This is clearly brought out in his discussion of making models of howthings work. Very similar to this theory is constructivism. Constructivism is searching formeaning through human experience. When trying to teach someone, it is important to knowhow the individual builds knowledge. Lastly, I believe that the social learning theory isimportant to Norman. People learn how to do things by viewing someone else and just doingit. There is no set memorization of patterns because many things are learned throughwatching and listening. I believe that this book is not only a book about design, but also abook about human thought. I left out many ideas and examples in the hope to concentrate onjust a few. Norman’s ideas of design show how learning theories are important in theeveryday world. Understanding human thought and learning makes teaching easier.Teaching is a lot like designing. Many times teachers teach for the subject being learned, anddesigners design for the object. You should teach for the learner and in design you shoulddesign for the user.

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1、FRAME 杂志

FRAME于1997年创立，是一本能够“record the spirit of the times”（记录时代精神）的著名室内设计杂志。最热门的空间设计、最酷的产品，以艺术和建筑增其美味——这就是FRAME 杂志的精髓。

2、INTERIOR DESIGN

自1932年起至今，Interior Design作为室内设计领航媒体，不断影响着全球的室内设计师的设计理念，精心策划、全面剖析经典原创的设计作品是吸引设计师的独特之处，是迄今美国最成功的设计类商业杂志。

3、理想家：2025

这是一个以建筑设计的方式，发自未来的邀请：来这里，和我们一起探讨中国未来居住方式变化的趋势与可能，一同窥见改变。

我们关注城乡变迁、关注空气质量、关注蚁居、关注人与人之间的天然联系、关注对自然的保护、关注科技与智能模式、关注原初生活形态、关注超老龄社会背景下的人居状态……关注“家”的意义。

4、室内空间设计手册［日］小原二郎

《室内空间设计手册》的内容是以室内空间为中心来叙述设计技法的。关于室内规划的基本考虑方法，可以建筑规划为范例。但室内与建筑所要求的深度不同，作为其补充内容是以人体工学为首的新领域的研究。

幸运的是，过去数十年间在这方面已经取得相当的成果。《室内空间设计手册》最初的意图就是吸取那些新的研究成果构成基本体系，并对基本设计技法进行分析与阐述，这就是书名"室内空间设计手册"的来由。

《住宅设计解剖书》是一本图解式的住宅设计与规划解剖书，用易懂的550幅插图搭配解说文字，让您清楚了解关于家的所有设计与规划。其中处处可见作者幽默风趣的表达方式及巧妙比喻，比如“住宅设计，就像做一个美味的便当”“冰箱是万人迷，任何人都想靠近它”“摆错床的位置，半夜就得扑上床了”等，让你轻松吸取住宅设计的个中巧妙！

《住宅设计解剖书》是一本图解式的住宅设计与规划解剖书，用易懂的550幅插图搭配解说文字，让您清楚了解关于家的所有设计与规划。其中处处可见作者幽默风趣的表达方式及巧妙比喻，比如“住宅设计，就像做一个美味的便当”“冰箱是万人迷，任何人都想靠近它”“摆错床的位置，半夜就得扑上床了”等，让你轻松吸取住宅设计的个中巧妙！

which he sees and feels.