陈述性知识是人有意识掌握的、以命题(proposition)方式储存在大脑中的事实、概念、或观念构成的信息,是有关世界“是什么”的知识。而命题是人们从事物的知觉信息中抽取出主要意义而忽略其细节特征的一种表征方式[5]。它具有抽象性和概括性。因此,学习者所获取有关英语的陈述性知识反映出他们对英语语言及其文化规律性的认知结果。在英语阅读认知活动中,学习者要理解阅读材料的语言意义,必须提取头脑中储存的英语词汇知识和语法知识(陈述性知识)。心理学的研究表明,在理解某一词语时,学习者会自动检索自己陈述性记忆中的“心理词典”( mental dictionary ),即首先激活陈述性记忆中的有关该词的知觉以及该词的所有含义,然后根据上下文做出选择。比如:要准确理解“He lost the match and also lost the chance to play in the finals.”句中 “finals”的词义时,学习者会自动激活该词的所有含义:“最后的”、“决赛”、“期末考试”和“报纸每日发行的最后一版”,并能根据语境迅速确定“final”是“决赛”,而不是其他含义。可见,理解词义首先需要具备词汇知识。学习者的心理词典内容越丰富,其提取词义的速度就越快。同理,分析句子结构、理顺词句间复杂的`语法和逻辑关系离不开语法知识。要准确理解“He has built a mansion overlooking Lake Washington that he’s packed with high-tech gadgetry and TV monitors” (徐小贞,《新世纪职高高专英语》,上海外语教育出版社,2005)这个句子,必须对这个结构较复杂的句子进行语法分析,理顺“overlooking Lake Washington”和 “that he’s packed with high-tech gadgetry and TV monitors”与“mansion”之间的语法关系,即现在分词短语和定语从句分别作名词“mansion”的定语。
解读语言意义需要语言知识;理解文化意义必须依赖文化背景知识。陈述性知识作为世界知识,它涉及英语语言知识和英语文化背景知识。认知心理学的研究发现,图式(schema)是陈述性知识的综合表征形式,是对范畴(category)中的规律性进行编码的一种形式(nderson R.C. & D. P. Pearson,1984)[6] 。图式既是一种知识表征形式,又是相互关联的知识构成的完整的信息系统,它是建立在个体经验基础上的、有层次的动态结构。比如,“打电话”的行为图式包括摘机、拨号、问好、交谈、告别和挂机一系列的动作程序。即便电话内容有所不同,但打电话的动作程序是大致相同的。图式的这种结构性与程式性为读者加工新信息提供了认知模式(cognitive model)和理解框架。安德森(Anderson,A.)和利恩奇(Lynch,T.)的听力理解研究表明,听者的意义建构是通过更广泛的信息资源所获得的,这种信息资源既包括图式(schematic)知识又包括情境(contextual)知识[7]。这表明我们并不仅仅依赖于传入耳中的语音性质来获得意义,还必须运用大脑中储存的图式知识对输入信息进行加工和意义建构。此外,图式还可以解释话语中词汇的多义(polysemy)现象(Lehnert W.G.)。读者读到 “ The royal proclamation was finished. The king sent for his seal.” 这个句子时,之所以不会将句中的“seal ”(印章)误解为 “海豹 ”;是因为句中的“seal ”、“the royal proclamation”和“king ”属于同一图式。可见,图式能帮助读者消除歧义(ambiguity)、准确地提取词义。就文体图式而言,论说文有论说文的文体图式;记叙文有记叙文的文体图式,等等。英语新闻的编辑图式(who、when、where、 what、why、how)无疑有助于学习者更迅速、准确地理解新闻的内容。安德森(Anderson .R. C.)认为,在阅读理解中,图式具有为同化新信息提供信息框架的作用。[8]让我们看一段文字材料:
The procedure is quite simple. First,you arrange things into different groups. Of course,one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step,otherwise youare pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is,it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first,the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon,however,it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future,but then one can never tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will have to be completed. However,this is part of life.[9]
在解读文本情感意义的过程中,陈述性知识以语言形式所承载的概念、命题的方式为学习者提供了分析、概括、综合和推理的文字依据。学习者通过运用这些概念和命题来分析与理解作者的观点或态度。比如,阅读 “Two Kinds of Football”(李观仪.《新编英语教程》上海外语教育出版社,1999)这篇文章后,要求学生分析作者对足球运动的态度,并作出正确评价。要理解作者的态度,学生必须从文章的字里行间找出作者对足球运动态度方面的信息,如“American football … is the American national sport”,“It excites tremendous enthusiasm”,“American football has a reputation of being a brutal and dangerous game. This reputation is not really deserved”,“Soccer games can now draw crowds of over 70 thousand in cities where baseball attracts a mere 20 thousand spectators”,“Soccer is being brilliantly promoted,like any other promising American product”;然后进行分析、整合、概括和推断;最终对作者的态度作出客观、正确的评价:作者对足球运动持“赞成”态度。
[3]Grabe,W.Currentdevelopment in second language reading research. TESOL,Quarterly 25(3),pp.375-406,1991.
[4]朱纯.外语教学心理学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1994.
[5]Anderson,JR.1983.The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press.
[6]Anderson,R.C. & Pearson,D.P.1984. A Schema-theoretic View of Basic Processes in Reading Comprehension. In Carrell,Devine & Eskey(ed.)Introductive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.