英文的演变

一、英语的形成。英语（English）是印欧语系-日耳曼语族下的语言，由26个字母组合而成，英文字母渊源于拉丁字母，拉丁字母渊源于希腊字母，而希腊字母则是由腓尼基字母演变而来的。英语是国际指定的官方语言（作为母语），也是世界上最广泛的第一语言，也是欧盟以及许多国际组织和英联邦国家的官方语言，拥有世界第三位的母语使用者人数，仅次于汉语和西班牙语母语使用者人数。英语由古代从丹麦等斯堪的纳维亚半岛以及德国、荷兰及周边移民至不列颠群岛的盎格鲁、撒克逊和朱特部落的白人所说的语言演变而来，并通过英国的殖民活动传播到了世界各地。由于在历史上曾和多种民族语言接触，它的词汇从一元变为多元，语法从“多屈折”变为“少屈折”，语音也发生了规律性的变化。在19至20世纪，英国以及美国在文化、经济、军事、政治和科学在世界上的领先地位使得英语成为一种国际语言。如今，许多国际场合都使用英语做为沟通媒介。英语也是与电脑联系最密切的语言，大多数编程语言都与英语有联系，而且随着网络的使用，英文的使用更普及。英语是联合国的工作语言之一。 苏格兰语、低地撒克逊语、丹麦语、德语、荷兰语、南非荷兰语和英语也很接近。拥有法国血统的诺曼人于11世纪征服英格兰王国，带来数万法语词汇和拉丁语词汇，很大程度地丰富了英语词汇外，相对也驱使不少原生的语汇作废。古英语受低地日耳曼语影响很大，比如动词，基本词汇，发音，复合词结构，形态变化很复杂，但是与现代的标准德语还是有很大的区别。现代英语并非起源或演变自罗曼语族亦或是法语，但是数万现代英语词汇，很大一部分来自法语，约5万英语词汇与法语接近甚至是完全相同，现代英语和多数现代欧洲语言都改用字母拼写。公元1066年，割据法兰西王国西北部的诺曼底公爵威廉一世征服英格兰王国，成为英格兰国王，所有的英国贵族也都换成法国人，并且和法国本土的贵族通婚。诺曼征服的三百余年间，英格兰王国的君主与贵族都讲法语，教士们则习用拉丁语，中古英语，现代英语。1500年左右，中古英语演变成为近代英语。二、英语的书写和发音。英语的书写使用拉丁字母，又称为“罗马字母”，单词的拼写系统或正确拼写法是依据历史传统而继承下来的，并不严格按照发音规律。因此，英语单词的发音与拼写之间经常有很大差异，单词拼法也是所有字母语言中最难掌握的拼写之一。拉丁字母，斯拉夫字母和阿拉伯字母被称为世界三大字母体系。所以学英语一开始要学音标，在入门级的英语教程（除了走遍美国）中，第一课往往是音标课。三、英语的语法。英语语法基于日耳曼语源，虽然一些18世纪和19世纪的学者试图把法语和古拉丁语的语法应用于英语，但是并不成功。英语与其他所有的印欧语系语言相比，没有那么复杂的屈折变化，也失去了几乎所有阴阳性变化，基本上，英语除了人称代词以外，已失去了性和格的分别了，它更强调词语间相对固定的顺序，也就是说英语正朝向分析语的方向发展（如猫尾可以写作cat tail，而不必写作cat's tail，这里的猫cat直接用了词根原形，而没用属格词缀cat's）。英语的基本语序为SVO，且基本上不能任意变换语序，除了在少数诗词以外；另一方面，有时英语会使用OSV的语序。

英语由古代从丹麦等斯堪的纳维亚半岛以及德国、荷兰及周边移民至不列颠群岛的盎格鲁-撒克逊人，以及朱特部落的白人所说的语言演变而来，并通过英国的殖民活动传播到了世界各地。

由于在历史上曾和多种民族语言接触，它的词汇从一元变为多元，语法从“多屈折”变为“少屈折”，语音也发生了规律性的变化。

在19至20世纪，英国以及美国在文化、经济、军事、政治和科学在世界上的领先地位使得英语成为一种国际语言。如今，许多国际场合都使用英语做为沟通媒介。

现代英语所使用的拼写字母，也是完全借用了26个字母。所谓“英语字母”，就是古罗马人在书写时所使用的拼写字母。英语开始以拉丁字母作为拼写系统大约是在公元六世纪盎格鲁撒克逊时代。

当时的传教士们为了把当地语言记录成文字而引进字母，他们所面临的问题是当时的英语共有超过40种不同的音，而拉丁字母无法一一对应，于是他们用增加字母、在字母上加变音符号、两个字母连写等方法来对应不同的发音，之后慢慢形成了古英语用26个拉丁字母+&来拼写并伴有一些拼写规则的文字系统。

扩展资料：

英语在下列国家和地区是第一语言：英国、美国、澳大利亚、巴哈马、爱尔兰、巴巴多斯、百慕大、圭亚那、牙买加、新西兰、圣基茨和尼维斯和特立尼达和多巴哥。21世纪世界上把英语作为第一语言（本族语）的人口约有5亿。

英语在下列国家和地区中是通用语言，这些国家和地区包括加拿大、多米尼克、圣路西亚和圣文森特和格林纳丁斯、密克罗尼西亚联邦、爱尔兰（连同爱尔兰语）、利比里亚（连同非洲语言）和南非（连同南非荷兰语和其他非洲语言）。作为第二语言（即不是母语，但为所在国通用语）使用的人口约有10亿。

英语语法基于日耳曼语源，虽然一些18世纪和19世纪的学者试图把法语和古拉丁语的语法应用于英语，但是并不成功。英语与其他所有的印欧语系语言相比，没有那么复杂的屈折变化，也失去了几乎所有阴阳性变化。

基本上，英语除了人称代词以外，已失去了性和格的分别了，它更强调词语间相对固定的顺序，也就是说英语正朝向分析语的方向发展（如猫尾可以写作cat tail，而不必写作cat's tail，这里的猫cat直接用了词根原形，而没用属格词缀cat's）。

参考资料来源：百度百科——英语

英语发展史可以追溯到公元前500年左右。在大不列颠岛(GreatBritain)上史料记载的最早的语言是公元前500年左右的凯尔特语(Celtic)。公元前55年，罗马人入侵大不列颠，并一直占领了大约500多年，拉丁语进入了该地区，并成为官方语言，凯尔特语的地位下降。约公元449年，居住于丹麦与德国北部的3个日耳曼人部族趁罗马帝国衰落入侵到大不列颠岛上。他们分别是盎格鲁人（Angles，入侵日德兰半岛中部）、萨克逊人（Saxons，入侵日德兰半岛南部）和朱特人（Jutes，入侵日德兰半岛北部）。在语言上，他们取代了当时该地所使用的凯尔特语。这三个日耳曼部族方言随着社会发展，逐渐融合为一种新的语言，即盎格鲁一萨克逊语（Anglo-Saxon），这就是后来形成的英语的基础。到公元700年，人们把大不列颠岛上三部族混合形成的语言称为Englisc。到公元1000年，岛上整个国家被称作Englaland。这两个词后来就演变成English（英语）和England（英格兰或英国）这就是English和England两个词的历史由来。目前在英国以外，把英语作为第一语言（即母语，Native language)的国家有爱尔兰(Ireland)、美国(America)、澳大利亚(Australia)、新西兰(New Zealand)、圭亚那(Guyana)、巴哈马(The Bahamas)、巴巴多斯(Barbados)、百慕大(Bermuda)、牙买加(Jamaica)、圣克里斯多福及尼维斯(Saint Christopher and Nevis)、特立尼达和多巴哥(Trinidad and Tobago)，在加拿大(Canada)大部分人说英语；把英语作为官方语言的国家有尼日利亚、加纳、肯尼亚、乌干达、坦桑尼亚、赞比亚、津巴布韦、南非、新加坡、印度、菲律宾等国；作为第二语言的有丹麦、芬兰、瑞典、挪威、冰岛等国。英语逐渐发展成为一种世界语言，在外交上的地位也取代了法语，成为今天世界政治、经济、科技、文化交流最重要的语言。8世纪末，丹麦人大批入侵英国，在其东北部建立丹麦区，持续了近300年，当时所带来的的斯堪的那维亚语对英语的发展有很大影响。公元1066年，法国的诺曼蒂公爵侵人英国，并加冕为英国国王，建立了诺曼蒂王朝，一直延续到1154年。在诺曼蒂王朝统治期间，英国实际上存在着三种语言，法语是官方语言；拉丁语是宗教语言，用于阅读圣经、教堂宗教活动；英语则是下层社会劳动者用的世俗语言。法语在英国的特殊地位一直延续到14世纪，法院、学校、宫廷分别于1362年、1385年、1399年才停止使用法语。1382年用英语书写的圣经出现，才结束了拉丁语的宗教语言地位。这时英语才成为英国的全民语言。因此英语中保留着大量的法语词汇（如age，air，brush，cry，bourgeoisie）和拉丁语词汇（angel，candle，moke，pope）。在“文艺复兴”时期（14世纪-16世纪），由于人们对古希腊、古罗马文化表现出浓厚的研究兴趣，英语又吸收了大量古代社会及当时欧洲大陆文化精华，词汇大增。例如来自希腊语的geometry，astronomy，botany；法语的comrade，alloy，surpass；西班牙语的banana，cocoa，mosquito；意大利语的violin，piazza。18世纪后，英国的工业革命兴起，对殖民地的争夺使英语随着帝国的发展走向世界。因此，在与各地交往中吸收大量新词汇。

英语语言的发展史：

1、盎格鲁――撒克逊时期。

从公元前55年到公元五世纪，罗马人两次入侵不列颠，对其统治达400年之久，当时英语还存在只有凯尔特人的语言――凯尔特语。公元410年，罗马人由于应付自己国家局势的变化，被迫离开了不列颠，接踵而来的是日耳曼人，他们有三个部落组成：盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人，他们使用各自的日耳曼方言，勉强可以交流。后来三个部落合在一起，使用统一的语言――盎格鲁－撒克逊语，也就是我们今天所说的“古英语”。

2、古英语时期

从公元793年开始，北欧的维京人从斯堪的纳维亚入侵英国，对英语主要产生了两个方面的影响：受北欧语的影响，英语的词尾变化和名词的性逐渐消失，所以今天的英语不像其他的欧洲语言一样有着复杂的语法、复杂的词尾变化，以及名词和形容词性、数、格的变化。

3、中古英语时期

中古英语时期是英语发展史的第二个阶段（1150年―1500年），公元1066年，法国诺曼底公爵威廉率领法国人入侵英格兰，在黑斯廷斯战役中战胜英军，成为不列颠的统治者，后人称之为征服者威廉，这段历史时期被称为“诺曼底征服”。据统计，今天的英语中约有30%的词汇量来自于法语词汇，法语对英语的影响可见一斑。

4、18世纪后期

英国已通过其殖民地和地缘政治统治地位传播了英语。商业、科学技术、外交、艺术和正规教育都使英语成为第一种真正的全球语言。英语还促进了世界范围的国际交流。英格兰继续形成新的殖民地，后来这些殖民地发展了自己的言语和写作规范。

5、 现代

语法情况的丧失几乎是完整的，而SVO的字序大部分是固定的。一些更改，例如使用do-support已变得普遍。在－ing中使用渐进形式似乎正在传播到新的建筑，并且已经建造的形式变得越来越普遍。不规则形式的正则化也缓慢地继续，并且变形形式的分析替代方法变得越来越普遍。受美式英语在媒体中的强大影响以及与美国作为世界大国相关的声望，英式英语也在美式英语的影响下也在发生变化。

http://www.iselong.com/english/0001/1124.htm(英语简史(English Version))A Brief Look at the History of English The history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome: Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th. Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað "because they angels' beauty have." Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above). The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell." In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contré ben many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun. In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English. The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock. The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly during the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.

卢恩语(Futhark)→古英语(即盎格鲁-撒克逊语)(Old English、Anglo-Saxon)→英国英语(English)

1.英语的发展要追溯到公元410年，罗马人离开不列颠之后，日耳曼部族包括盎格鲁、萨克逊开始涌入。

2.罗马人走了，没有留下他们使用的拉丁语。反倒是实用的盎格鲁萨克逊语言进入到当地人的语言，带去了新的词汇。

3.公元597年，基督教传入英国。基督教的流行，使当地人更容易接受拉丁文的怪字，如“martyr（烈士）”, “bishop”和 “font”。

4.公元800年，丹麦人入侵英国。维京语言给英语带来了好战意味明显的词汇，英语中共有2000个词汇源于维京人。

5.1066年,征服者威廉入侵不列颠，带来了来自海峡对岸的法语。法语成为了上层阶级与官方事务用语。总的来讲，英文大概从诺曼语中吸收了一万多个单词。

6.1337 年，英法百年战争开始。在这116年的争斗中，英语吸收了法语中的战争词汇，如“armies”, “navies” 及 “soldiers“， 并逐步取代法语，成为当权者的语言。

7.100年之后诞生了莎士比亚。字典告诉我们，莎士比亚大概发明了2000多个新字，包括好用的词汇还有很多当时的流行词汇。

8.1611年出现了詹姆士王版圣经。新圣经使用了所有人都能理解的语言，使得圣经中的教训不再是“王宫粉墙上”的文字，而是手中的小册，并有传教士在每间教堂宣传。

9.17世纪，科学得到了迅速的发展。皇家学院的科学家们一开始用拉丁文沟通，后来发现其实用自己的母语英文会更简洁。新事物的发现产生了许多新的词汇。

10.在日不落帝国迅速扩张时期，英语从殖民地不同的语言中吸收了许多新的词汇与表达。据统计，在1815年到1914年期间，新变种的英文得以在世界各地发展。

11.随着英文向四面八方扩张，词典编纂者也随之出现，这些人想要解决拼字不统一的无政府状态。于是约翰逊博士花了九年编成了一本英文字典，促成了拼写的统一。

12.英语由古代从丹麦等斯堪的纳维亚半岛以及德国、荷兰及周边移民至不列颠群岛的盎格鲁、撒克逊以及朱特部落的白人所说的语言演变而来，并通过英国的殖民活动传播到了世界各地。

13.在19至20世纪，英国以及美国在文化、经济、军事、政治和科学在世界上的领先地位使得英语成为一种国际语言。如今，许多国际场合都使用英语做为沟通媒介。

古英语受低地日耳曼语影响很大，比如动词，基本词汇，发音，复合词结构，形态变化很复杂，但是与现代的标准德语还是有很大的区别。

现代英语并非起源或演变自罗曼语族亦或是法语，但是数万现代英语词汇，很大一部分来自法语，约5万英语词汇与法语接近甚至是完全相同，现代英语和多数现代欧洲语言都改用字母拼写。

现代英语所使用的拼写字母，也是完全借用了26个字母。所谓“英语字母”，就是古罗马人在书写时所使用的拼写字母。

英语开始以拉丁字母作为拼写系统大约是在公元六世纪盎格鲁撒克逊时代。

英语-百度百科