英国资产阶级英文

用金山快译将中文译为English就行了.

1640年开始，1689年结束

你好。爆发于1640年,结束于1688年.

Glorious Revolution The greatest landmark in the history of England is the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This revolution is called �lorious?because it achieved its objective without any bloodshed. James II came to the throne of England in 1685, after Charles II his brother died. He desired to rule despotically and to re-establish the Roman Catholic religion in England. The common people did not like this. They rose in revolt. This struggle between the King and the Parliament ended in victory for the people (i.e. the representative of the people - the parliament). A constitutional monarchy was now established in England. All the power rested in the hands of people and they availed long cherished freedom. Modern rules were framed according to which the King ruled only as per the wishes and will of the people.2.10a The Main Reasons of Revolution of 1668 Socio-political factors combined with religious issues to produce a chain of events that led to this revolution.i. Religious IssuesThe efforts of James II to restore Catholicism in England bothered the English people. Re-instating -Catholicism in England was his dream and he was prepared to sacrifice even his throne for the sake of his religion. James II was a Roman Catholic and openly so. No one would have minded that. But the trouble with him was that he was not contented with himself being a Catholic. James II issued a statement on his accession to the throne in which he had promised to uphold the Church of England and to regard his own religion as a personal affair. The people at large felt gratified over it. But after the suppression of Argyll and Monmouth� rebellions he felt himself so strong that he foolishly thought of Catholicizing the whole nation. The Tory and the church party had espoused his cause in the beginning because they had trusted him and taken his early statement as true. But crafty as James II was, he did not prove true to his promise. He could not hope to count on the help of the Tories and the Church, if his religious designs were to be prejudiced and aggressive. He was thus playing into the hands of the Whigs.The Test Act was passed during the reign of Charles II. It required that every person who wanted to get civil or military posts must accept the Anglican Church and its principles. The Catholics were thus deprived of these privileges. The new King, James wanted to attach more importance to the Catholics and therefore he made fervent efforts to reject his act. He dissolved it. He dismissed his High Court Tory ministers, and surrounded himself with sycophants, chief among whom was the very clever but utterly corrupt Earl of Sutherland. He did not hesitate to announce his conversion to Catholicism in order to please the King. In place of the Earl of Clarendon, James gave the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland to the Catholic Earl of Tyrconnell. Tyrconnell� instructions were to attack the Protestant ascendancy. ii. First Declaration of IndulgenceJames II was a Roman Catholic and he treated his fellow religious believers?most sympathetically by appointing them to high positions in the state and the army. Not only that James II invited the Pope of Rome to England and restored his old position officially on him. James II issued his first "Declaration of Indulgence" in 1687 which he suspended wholesale the penal laws against the Roman Catholics. The result was that the Roman Catholics and other Dissenters began to worship openly. The Tories, who stood for the Church of England, were exasperated. The Whigs were unreconciliatory. They were scared that James II was supporting Catholicism under the religious toleration. iii. Second Declaration of Indulgence In 1688, James II issued the Second Declaration of Indulgence. It was ordered that this declaration should be spread in every Church on two consecutive Sundays. Almost all priests opposed the reading of the Declaration. He condemned the seven bishops to be imprisoned in the London Tower who refused to obey King� orders and opposed James but they were set free by court amidst public rejoicing. This act made James II unpopular.James wanted to spread Catholicism in the universities also. For pushing the Catholics to high positions, James used many unfair means. For instance, the post of Head of Megdallan College of Oxford University was vacated and one James Parker, a Catholic was appointed. He even dismissed the vice-chancellor of Cambridge University because he had refused to accommodate a Catholic in the University. The Parliament could not tolerate this high-handedness of the monarch. Moreover the university people also disliked it.iv. Army and DefenseAfter the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth, James II did not agree to the disbanding of the army regiments. He failed to realize the feeling of the English people against the maintenance of the standing army. The Englishmen could not tolerate the standing army. This was against the interest and feeling of common Englishmen. The people developed negative sentiments for the King.James II made a mistake when he got the Duke of Monmouth executed after his defeat in the battle of Sedgmoor. It was a blunder on his part. It would have been better if the Duke had been kept in the Tower or allowed to escape overseas. The death of the Duke cleared the Whigs of any possible ill will of the people. The result was that the Whigs began to gain in strength and popularity and ultimately they were responsible for the overthrow of James in 1688. But for this unpolitical act of James II, the Whigs might not have got an opportunity to come into prominence and lead the opposition against James II.With a view to overawe the Londoners, he posted soldiers in the neighborhood of London. The King was actually trying to play the part of a bully. He should have known that Englishmen would not tolerate such an attitude.After the suppression of Monmouth� rebellion all his supporters were arrested and jailed. A special court was established to try them. Jeffrey was the Chief Justice. He was a notorious tyrant and barbarian who hanged about three hundred of them and transported some 800 to various countries, especially to West Indies, to work as slaves. Due to Jeffrey� cruel deeds, this court came to be known as �loody Assizes.? It was considered a crime against humanity and a great political blunder. A fierce wave of anger swept over the country and executions and imprisonment fanned to flame the smoldering fire of widespread unrest and discontent.v. Policy for Ireland and ScotlandThe appointment of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland turned all the Irish Protestants against the Stuart monarchy. In the same manner his policy towards Scotland of Presbyterian persecution turned most of the Scottish people against James II.vi. The Birth of a Son - An Important FactorAt that critical time, news came from the court announcing that James?wife, Queen Mary of Modena, had given birth to a son. This was a bolt from the blue. The people thought that with a successor in James?line of descent, there was no possibility of relief from the Catholic regime. The people hoped that James II would die without a son and after his death, his daughter Mary, wife of William of Orange, Protestant King of Holland, would ascend the throne. They were prepared to put up with James II because they knew that he was not going to live long on account of his old age. They submitted to the tyranny of James II because they knew that it was bound to end sooner or later. Thereupon the nation tried to take a revolutionary step. The Whig and Tory leaders all united and they decided to invite William of Holland, the husband of Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II to come and ascend the throne of England.2.10b Events of the Glorious RevolutionAn incredibly smooth development of events led to the Glorious Revolution. The people of England decided to dethrone James and invited his son-in-law, William of Orange to occupy the throne of England. Though William was busy in a battle with France, he gladly accepted the invitation extended to him. He felt that it provided him an opportunity to combine the strength of England and Holland against France, the latter having an eye on Holland.The people of England sent an invitation to William and Mary to come over with an army "to save the Protestant religion and the constitutional liberties of England." They landed in England after some difficulty. James II might have been permitted to retain his throne even then if he had repented for whatever illegal things he had done in the past and if he had promised to rule according to the law of the land. However, his stubbornness lost him all his friends. His army went over to the other side and he fled to France in December 1688, after throwing into the Thames the Great Seal of the Realm.William� professional Army consisted of the English, the Dutch, the Swedes and the Germans. For some weeks, William did not get much encouragement. Gradually the nobility deserted James. The Council of Peers was busy making preparations to call a free Parliament. At this time news came that James had been captured at Faversham in Kent. He was brought back to London. But he managed to escape. He took off for his final fight to France. His enemies were too glad to get rid of him. The members of the attending parliament discussed the question of Kingship. Finally the attending parties decided that the Royal power should be vested in William and Mary, who thus became the rulers of England. In this way with the fleeing of James II without putting up a fight, the bloodless Glorious Revolution took place. The Revolution of 1688 was a unique Revolution, not only in the history of England but probably in the history of Europe. In this connection Macaulay observes: "The highest eulogy which can be pronounced on the Revolution of 1688 is this that this was our last Revolution."It finally decided the great question whether the popular element which had, ever since the age of Fitz Walter and de Montfort, been found in the English policy should be suffered to develop itself freely and to become dominant. The strife between the two principles had been long, fierce and doubtful. It had lasted through four reigns. It had produced seditions, impeachments, rebellions, battles, sieges, proscription, and judicial massacres. Sometimes liberty, sometimes royalty, had seemed to be on the point of perishing." 2.10c Nature of Glorious RevolutionAlthough the reasons of this revolution were socio-political and religious, its nature was political. It was accomplished without bloodshed. Before the revolution of 1688, all-important political changes were brought in the wake of great bloodshed and excesses. England was compelled to pass through a great Civil War with it. Even the French Revolution of 1785 had the sacrifice of thousands of innocent people. However, in the case of Glorious Revolution in England nothing of the kind happened. In this regard Professor Trevelyan writes, "For many generations to come, the Revolution of 1688 was spoken of by our ancestors as the Glorious Revolution. Its glory did not consist in any deed of arms, in facts of heroism on the part of Englishmen nor in the fact that a whole nation proved itself stronger than their official King did. There was indeed a certain ignominy in the fact that a foreign King and army, however, friendly and welcome, had been required to enable Englishmen to recover the liberties they had muddled away in their frantic faction feuds. The true glory of the revolution lay in the fact that it was bloodless, that there was no Civil War, no massacre, no proscription, and above all, that a settlement by consent was reached on the religious and political differences that had so long and so fiercely divided men and parties." Some other historians also support the views of Professor Trevelyan. For instance, according to well-known historian Burkey, the events of 1688-89 were, "a happy and Glorious Revolution. It was the good fortune of England that the transition from despotism to constitutional monarchy, was brought about without any bloodshed. But some historians do not give much importance to the revolution of 1688. For instance, according to Marriot, "It was essentially conservative in nature. It conserved most things of the past and was not a radical departure from the old order. It only made explicit, what was previously only implicit and thus did not introduced any radical changes." The historian further says, "It was not a democratic movement in any sense and the wisest among them benefited by it."

英国资产阶级革命是从1640年查理一世召开新议会的事件开始到1688年议会反对派发动宫廷政变（又称光荣革命）结束，以新贵族阶级为代表推翻封建专制统治建立起英国资本主义制度的社会革命。推翻了封建统治，并在1689年颁布文献《权利法案》以法律形式对王权进行明确制约，确立了议会君主立宪制。法国大革命（法文：La Révolution française，英文：The French Revolution）又称法国资产阶级革命，是1789年7月14日在法国爆发的革命，统治法国多个世纪的波旁王朝统治下的君主制在三年内土崩瓦解。法国在这段时期经历着一个史诗式的转变：过往的贵族和宗教特权不断受到自由主义政治组织及上街抗议的民众的冲击，旧的观念逐渐被全新的天赋人权、三权分立等的民主思想所取代。对法国大革命结束的时间，世界史学界看法众多，难成共识。在中国，以热月政变作为大革命结束标志比较普遍，热月政变推翻了雅各宾派的激进集权统治。1794年7月27日，宣告了法国大革命中市民革命的结束。1830年7月巴黎人民发动七月革命，建立了以路易·菲利浦为首的七月王朝，至此法国大革命才彻底结束。在政变中建立了以热月党人为代表的政权。法国历史进入维护大革命成果时期。美国独立战争（英语：American Revolutionary War，1775年—1783年），或称美国革命战争，是大英帝国和其北美十三州殖民地的革命者，以及几个欧洲强国之间的一场战争。美国南北战争（American Civil War，即美国内战），是美国历史上唯一一次内战，参战双方为北方美利坚合众国和南方的美利坚联盟国。战争以南方联盟炮击萨姆特要塞为起点[1]，最终以北方联邦胜利告终。战争之初，北方为了维护国家统一而战，后来，演变为一场消灭奴隶制的革命战争。